Fennema's Food Chemistry · Chapter 3 · 6-hour Full Edition

Carbohydrates

From a single glucose to the texture of bread

Sugar Stereochemistry Maillard Browning Starch Gelatinization Food Hydrocolloids 26 slides · 6 minigames

Why does bread go stale?

Fresh bread is soft,
but in 2 days it's hard and dry,
even though moisture loss is minimal?

The answer lies in starch retrogradation — a physical re-arrangement of carbohydrate molecules.
To understand this, we must master sugar structure, reactions, and physical properties.

90%

of plant dry matter is carbohydrate

70–80%

of human global calories

2ⁿ

isomers from n chiral centers

DP 10⁷

amylopectin (largest molecule)

Chapter Map · From Monosaccharides to Hydrocolloids

Seven scales of increasing complexity

01

Monosaccharides

Stereochemistry, ring forms, anomers, mutarotation, reactions

⏱ ~60 min

02

Browning Reactions

Maillard · Caramel · Acrylamide

⏱ ~45 min

03

Oligosaccharides

Maltose, lactose, sucrose, trehalose, cyclodextrins

⏱ ~40 min

04

Polysaccharide Properties

DP, crystallinity, rheology, random coils

⏱ ~40 min

05

Starch

Amylose/amylopectin, gelatinization, retrogradation, modification

⏱ ~70 min

06

Cellulose + Hydrocolloids

CMC, MC/HPMC, xanthan, guar, carrageenan, pectin

⏱ ~70 min

07 · Dietary fiber + Prebiotics + Applications · ⏱ ~35 min

Topic 1a · Monosaccharide Classification

From trioses to nonoses, aldoses or ketoses; only 16 D-hexoses

C count	Aldose	Ketose
3	Triose (glyceraldehyde)	Triulose
4	Tetrose (erythrose)	Tetrulose
5	Pentose (ribose, xylose)	Pentulose
6	Hexose (Glc, Gal, Man)	Hexulose (fructose)
7	Heptose	Heptulose

Number of isomers = 2ⁿ, n = # of chiral C
Hexose aldose: n = 4 → 2⁴ = 16 isomers (8 D + 8 L)

aldose (-ose): C1 is aldehyde -CHO
ketose (-ulose): C2 is ketone C=O
Nature predominantly D-series (L-arabinose, L-galactose are exceptions)

Topic 1b · Stereochemistry

D vs L: look at the highest-numbered chiral C

Chiral center: C with 4 different substituents
D sugar: OH of highest-# chiral C on the right (vs D-glyceraldehyde reference)
L sugar: OH on left (mirror image)
D and L are enantiomers: all chiral C inverted
Epimer: only 1 chiral C differs
e.g., D-Glc vs D-Man (C2); D-Glc vs D-Gal (C4)

Important food sugars

Sugar	Form	Source
D-Glucose	Most abundant free	Honey, grapes
D-Fructose	Only commercial ketose	Fruits, HFCS 55%
D-Galactose	Rarely free	Lactose, pectin
D-Mannose	In polysaccharides	Galactomannans
D-Xylose	For xylitol	Birch wood

Topic 1c · Ring Forms & Anomeric Carbon

In water, aldoses spontaneously cyclize into hemiacetals

Cyclization: C-1 aldehyde + C-5 OH → cyclic hemiacetal
6-member pyranose (most common): C-5 OH attacks C-1
5-member furanose: C-4 OH attacks C-1
After cyclization C-1 becomes a new chiral C → anomeric C
α-anomer: C-1 OH below ring (Haworth)
β-anomer: C-1 OH above ring
Glucose equilibrium @ 20°C (aqueous):
α-pyranose 36.2% + β-pyranose 63.8% + open chain 0.003%
Fructose: β-pyranose 75% + β-furanose 21% + α-furanose 4%

Chair (⁴C₁): β-D-glucopyranose has all bulky groups (OH, CH₂OH) in equatorial → most stable! Why β prevails.

Topic 1d · Mutarotation

Pure α crystals in water: optical rotation changes slowly

Phenomenon: α-D-glucose crystals in water: [α] drops from +112° to equilibrium +52.7°
Cause: α ↔ open chain ↔ β interconvert rapidly
At equilibrium: α 36.2% + β 63.8% + open 0.003%
Although the open form is tiny, fast replenishment lets aldoses react "as if all were open chain"
Acid/base catalyze mutarotation

⚠️ Food relevance: sugar solutions shift composition during storage — affects solubility, crystallization (candy graining), Maillard rate (β reacts slower).

"Reducing sugar" reactivity

Reduce Fehling, Tollens, Benedict reagents
Reactivity: aldoses > ketoses (ketose isomerizes first)
Sucrose has no free aldehyde end → non-reducing

Equilibrium distribution @ 20°C

Sugar	α-pyr	β-pyr	α-fur	β-fur
Glucose	36.2	63.8	0	0
Galactose	29	64	3	4
Mannose	68.8	31.2	0	0
Arabinose	60	35.5	2.5	0.5
Ribose	21.5	58.5	6.5	13.5
Xylose	36.5	63	<1	<1
Fructose	4	75	0	21

Fructose: β-pyr 75% dominant, 21% β-fur — fructose in sucrose is in β-fur form!

Rule: distribution is set by "all bulky groups equatorial". Mannose C2 OH axial → α 68.8% prevails.

Topic 1e · Monosaccharide Reactions

Sugar's 5 key reactions: oxidation, reduction, ester, ether, glycoside

🔥 Oxidation

C1 aldehyde → carboxylic acid (aldonic acid)
Glucose → gluconic acid
Commercial: glucose oxidase (GOX)
Product: D-glucono-1,5-lactone (GDL)
GDL slowly hydrolyzes → slow acidification → meat, baking
C6 oxidation → uronic acid
e.g., D-galacturonic acid (pectin backbone)

💧 Reduction

Carbonyl reduced → sugar alcohol (alditol), "-itol"
Glucose → sorbitol, humectant
Xylose → xylitol, negative heat of solution, cool sensation chewing gum
Fructose → sorbitol + mannitol
Sugar alcohols don't participate in Maillard (no carbonyl)

🔗 Ester, Ether, Glycoside

Esters: acetate, phosphate (starch, pectin)
Ethers: methyl, CMC, hydroxypropyl ← modified polysaccharides
Glycosides: C1 OH + alcohol → full acetal
e.g., methyl α-D-glucopyranoside
Non-reducing (C1 blocked)

Sugar alcohols: sweetness & calories

Alditol	Sweetness (sucrose=100)	kcal/g
Xylitol	100	2.4 ★ non-cariogenic
Sorbitol	60	2.6
Mannitol	50	1.6 non-hygroscopic
Erythritol	70	0.2 GI=0

★ Xylitol isn't metabolized by oral bacteria — FDA-recognized non-cariogenic.
★ Large doses → diarrhea (osmotic + colonic fermentation).
★ Sorbitol/mannitol industrially from hydrogenated fructose half of sucrose.

Topic 1f · Relative Sweetness

"Sweet" relative strength — formulation key numbers

Sweetener	Sweetness	Notes
Sucrose	100	Standard
Fructose	140-170	Sweeter cold
Glucose	70-80	Low
Maltose	30-40	Low
Lactose	15-20	Low
Honey	100	≈ sucrose
HFCS 55	~100	Sucrose replacer
Sucralose	60,000	High-intensity
Saccharin	30,000	High-intensity

Fructose tastes sweeter in cold drinks (β-pyr fraction rises at low T → β-pyr is sweeter).

Topic 2a · Non-enzymatic Browning (Maillard)

Maillard's 3 stages: color, aroma, but losses lysine

Stage 1 · Initial

Reducing sugar + amine (lysine ε-NH₂)

→

Schiff base (imine)

Schiff base

→

Amadori product (1-amino-1-deoxy-fructose)

Stage 2 · Middle

Amadori → 1, 3, 4-deoxyosones
Further dehydration → HMF (5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde)
Pentoses → furfural
Strecker degradation: flavor aldehydes (methional, 3-methylbutanal)
Reductones: antioxidant intermediates

Stage 3 · Final

Form melanoidins (brown N-containing polymers)
Form flavors: maltol, isomaltol, furanones, pyrazines
15-40% lysine loss in baked goods

Topic 2b · Control Variables & Caramelization

Maillard 5 variables + pure sugar also browns

🎛️ Maillard Control

Variable	Effect
Temperature	Higher = faster (high Ea)
pH	Alkaline > acidic; max pH 6-8
Water activity	Max a_w 0.6-0.7 (30% MC)
Sugar type	Triose > pentose > hexose > disaccharide
Amino acid	Lysine (ε-NH₂) most reactive
Inhibitor	SO₂, sulfites bind carbonyl

⭐ Industrial: French-fry / bread-crust browning is desired; milk-powder yellowing is a defect. Suppress at a_w 0.2-0.3.

🍯 Caramelization

No amine; sugars thermally degrade (>150°C)
Products: dehydration (anhydro rings) + isomerization + condensation
Unsaturated rings, furans, 3-deoxyosones
Also brown polymers, but no N

4 Commercial Caramels

Class	Catalyst	Use
I Plain	None	Candy, liquor
II Caustic sulfite	SO₂	Beer
III Ammonia	NH₃	Bakery, syrups, pudding
IV Sulfite-ammonia	NH₃+SO₂	Cola, sauces

Classes III, IV contain pyrazine/imidazole derivatives — distinct flavors.

Topic 2c · Acrylamide (Food Safety)

Hidden by-product in fries and chips

Discovered in 2002 in high-T foods: acrylamide (CH₂=CH–CONH₂)
Source: reducing sugars + asparagine + T > 120°C (Maillard side path)
Animal: neurotoxic, possibly carcinogenic (IARC 2A)
Human epidemiology inconclusive at typical exposure
High-content foods: fries, chips, coffee, crackers, toast crust
Conditions:
→ T > 120°C (only surface above boiling)
→ Asparagine + dicarbonyl intermediates
→ Higher pH → more (above 120°C, alkaline faster)

Mitigation strategies

Blanch potatoes to wash out sugar/asparagine
Add asparaginase enzyme (commercialized)
Lower pH (citric acid soak)
Oil < 175°C
Low-asparagine potato cultivars

Food	Acrylamide (ppb)
Potato chips	117–2762
French fries	109–1325
Crackers	26–1540
Bread crust	24–130
Cereal RTE	11–1057
Chocolate	0–74
Coffee (ground)	64–319
Decaf coffee	27–351
Veggie/sweet chips	~1970

High-T deep-fried tubers are riskiest. EFSA: BMDL₁₀ = 0.17 mg/kg/day.

Topic 3a · Disaccharide Comparison (180-min break)

Four key disaccharides: linkage matters most

Disaccharide	Composition	Linkage	Reducing?	Source	Food function
Maltose	Glc + Glc	α-1,4	Yes	Malted barley (starch hydrolysis)	Mild sweet, malt flavor
Lactose	Gal + Glc	β-1,4	Yes	Cow milk 4.5-4.8%, breast 7%	Infant energy, lactose intolerance
Sucrose	Glc + Fru	α-1,β-2 (head-to-head)	No	Cane, sugar beet	Standard sweet, preservative, humectant
Trehalose	Glc + Glc	α-1,α-1	No	Fungi, yeast	Cryoprotectant, retro-inhibitor
Cellobiose	Glc + Glc	β-1,4	Yes	Cellulose hydrolysis	Indigestible to humans

🧬 Linkage = reducing status

Maltose head-to-tail (one end still hemiacetal) → reducing
Sucrose head-to-head (both hemiacetals used) → non-reducing

🥛 Lactose intolerance

No lactase → lactose to colon → lactic acid + gas → diarrhea, bloating. 70% of adult Asians.

🍬 Invert sugar

Sucrose hydrolysis → equimolar Glc + Fru (fructose sweeter) → invert sugar is sweeter. Used in honey substitutes, candy (anti-graining).

Topic 3b · Sucrose Deep-dive

Why is sucrose the "universal sugar" of food science?

High solubility: 67% w/w @ 25°C (honey concentration); high osmolality inhibits microbes
Non-reducing: no Maillard (unless hydrolyzed) → long shelf life without browning
Controllable crystallization: candy, chocolate basis
Retains water + shape: in baking competes with protein for water → keeps soft
Cryoprotection: concentrated sucrose vitrifies → prevents ice crystal growth
BP elevation: T tracks concentration (softball 110°C, hardball 121°C, hardcrack 154°C)
α-Glc-1,β-2-Fru: both hemiacetals locked → fully non-reducing
[α]_D = +66.5° → after hydrolysis −33.3° (invert sugar)

Sucrose hydrolysis → invert sugar

Sucrose (+66.5°) + H₂O / acid / enzyme
→ D-glucose + D-fructose (mixture −33.3°)
"Invert" ← name origin

Commercial enzyme: sucrase / invertase
Sweeter (fructose 1.5× sweeter than sucrose)
Won't crystallize (mixed sugars don't supersaturate-nucleate)
Used: candy (anti-graining), jams, bread (fermentable sugar)

Sucralose

Replace 3 OH with Cl → 600× sweetness, zero calorie, heat-stable.

Topic 3c · Cyclodextrins

Cyclic sugars: hydrophilic outside, hydrophobic inside — food "nano-capsules"

CD	Units	∅ (Å)	Sol (g/100mL)	Food use
α-CD	6	4.7–5.3	14.5	Few
β-CD	7	6.0–6.5	1.9 ← lowest!	Main
γ-CD	8	7.5–8.3	23.2	Some

β-CD's low solubility is from tight outer H-bonds — yet cheapest, dominant.

Food applications

Inclusion complex: trap insoluble / volatile compounds in cavity
Encapsulate flavors: shield from oxidation
Masking: remove bitterness, off-odor
Decholesterolize: β-CD binds cholesterol → remove from dairy
Controlled release: heat or moisture triggers

Topic 4a · Polysaccharide Overview

DP 200–15,000+, not uniform

DP (Degree of polymerization): chain length
Polysaccharides = single or mixed monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds
homoglycan: single sugar (starch, cellulose)
heteroglycan: mixed (pectin, xanthan)
Polydisperse: MW distribution wide
Polymolecular: structural heterogeneity
No template-driven synthesis (unlike proteins)

Hydration & cryoprotection

~3 OH per sugar unit → strongly hydrophilic
Non-freezable water = tightly-bound hydration shell
Polysaccharides don't depress freezing point much (large MW, colligative)
Cryostabilization: high concentration glassy state → limits ice growth

Topic 4b · Polysaccharide Rheology

Why does ketchup thin out when shaken?

Linear polysaccharides sweep large volume → high viscosity
Branched polysaccharides occupy less space, lower viscosity at same DP
Charged polysaccharides (pectin, alginate) extend via charge repulsion → even higher viscosity
Shear-thinning (Pseudoplastic): ↑shear → ↓viscosity (instant, reversible)
e.g., ketchup, xanthan, CMC
Thixotropic: ↑shear → ↓viscosity (time-dependent)
Recovers viscosity over time at rest

⭐ Why this matters in foods:
① Pour easily (high shear)
② Mouthfeel thick (low shear)
③ No "sliminess" in throat
Xanthan is the ideal shear-thinner (1000:1 ratio at 0.1%).

Topic 5a · Starch Granules

Starch = two molecules + granule structure

📏 Linear Amylose

α-1,4 linked linear D-glucose (rare 1,6 branches)
Right-handed helix (6 glucose per turn)
Hydrophobic interior binds fatty acids, iodine (→ blue!)
MW 10⁵–10⁶ (DP 1000-6000)
~25% of common corn starch
Fast retrogradation (minutes-hours)

🌳 Branched Amylopectin

α-1,4 backbone + 4-6% α-1,6 branches (every 20-25 glucose)
Clusters → double helices → granule crystallinity
MW 8×10⁵–6×10⁹ (DP 5000–37,000,000, largest natural molecule!)
~75% of common starch
Slow retrogradation (days-months)
Waxy maize ~100% amylopectin

Starch	Granule μm	% amy	T_gel °C	Paste clarity	Retro
Common corn	2–30	28	62–80	Opaque	High
Waxy corn	2–30	<2	63–72	Slight	Very low
High-amy corn	2–24	50–75	66–170	Opaque	Very high
Potato	5–100	21	58–65	Clear	Med
Tapioca	4–35	17	52–65	Clear	Med
Wheat	2–55	28	52–85	Opaque	High
Rice	1–9	17–25	61–80	Slight	Med

Potato is special: phosphate esters (0.08%) carry negative charge → clear paste, high viscosity, slow retrogradation, Ca²⁺ bridging.

Topic 5b · Gelatinization

Heat + water: crystalline → swollen → ruptured → paste

Native granule: cold water reversible uptake (10-30%), birefringent
Onset (T_gel ~55-65°C):
→ Irreversible swelling (10×)
→ Crystalline melting (double helices dissociate)
→ Loss of birefringence
Amylose leaches into water phase
Conclusion: granule fully disrupts, forms paste
Pasting curve: viscosity rises to T_p peak, then falls (granule breakdown)
Cooling → viscosity rises again → gel

DSC observation: endothermic peak (onset, peak, end T)
With excess water ΔH ~10-20 J/g

Gelatinization is a composite event of T_g (glass→rubber) + crystallite melting. Water plays plasticizer role.

Topic 5c · Retrogradation

Bread staling: the "reverse" of gelatinization

Definition: after gelatinization and cooling, starch chains re-associate → partial recrystallization
Amylose retrogradation (min-hours):
→ Double helix reformation
→ Initial gel hardening
→ Early staling driver
Amylopectin retrogradation (days-months):
→ Outer branches slowly recrystallize
→ Long-term staling driver
Variables:
→ Amylose/amylopectin ratio (waxy → almost no retro)
→ Temperature (4°C fastest, −18°C stops)
→ MC (moderate fastest)

Anti-staling strategies

Surfactants: GMP, SSL form complex with amylose → block reassociation
Use waxy starch (low amylose)
Add trehalose or hydroxypropyl starch
Bread: α-amylase partially hydrolyze amylose

Topic 5d · Modified Starches

Native starch's three defects → chemical/physical modifications

Defects

① Thin cold paste (corn)
② Freeze-thaw syneresis
③ Retrogradation hardens
④ Unstable in shear/low pH

Stabilization

Add "bumps" to block re-crystallization
Hydroxypropyl starch (most used)
Starch acetate (DS < 0.09)
Octenyl-succinate (also emulsifies)
→ Better freeze-thaw, paste clarity

Cross-linking

Distarch phosphate (most common)
Adipate
→ Stronger granule; resists shear, acid, heat
Used in canned/baby foods (long shelf-life)
Often combined with stabilization

Hydrolysis products

Maltodextrin (DE <20): filler, body
Corn syrup (DE 42): candy stabilizer
HFCS 55: 55% fructose, beverages
Glucose (DE 100): candy base

Physical mods

Pregelatinized: cold-water-soluble
Cold-water-swelling: retains granule
For instant pudding, soup mixes

Enzyme hydrolysis

α-amylase (endo, → oligo)
β-amylase (exo, → maltose)
Glucoamylase → glucose
Glucose isomerase → HFCS

Topic 5e · Cellulose & Derivatives

Same Glc, one bond different → worlds apart

Cellulose: β-1,4 D-Glc, flat linear
Strong inter-chain H-bonds → crystalline bundles → water-insoluble
Humans lack cellulase → indigestible, but dietary fiber
vs starch: α-1,4 → helical, digestible

Food-grade derivatives

Derivative	Substituent	Property
CMC	-O-CH₂-COO⁻Na⁺	Negative, high viscosity, stable
MCC	None	Crystalline particles, emulsifier, bulker
MC	-O-CH₃	Thermogels (heat→gel, cool→liquid)
HPMC	-O-CH₃ + -O-CH₂-CHOH-CH₃	Thermogel + surface-active

⚡ MC / HPMC are anomalous thermogels:
Soluble cold → on heating (50-90°C) gels reversibly!
Cause: hydration shell strips → chain contact → hydrophobic interaction
Cooling reverses → solution
Application: oil-uptake reduction in frying (gel barrier), vegan meat binder

MCC (microcrystalline)

From wood-pulp acid hydrolysis + separation
White powder, 2 types:
→ Powdered MCC: anti-caking (shredded cheese)
→ Colloidal MCC: emulsion, foam, low-fat ice cream
Often combined with CMC for stable colloid

Topic 6a · Hydrocolloids (300 min · final hour)

Six key hydrocolloids compared

Gum	Source	Backbone	Key property	Typical use
Xanthan	Microbial (X. campestris)	Cellulose + triose side	Excellent shear-thin; salt/acid stable	Salad dressing, GF baking
Guar gum	Guar seed	Galactomannan (Man:Gal=2:1)	Cold-water-soluble, high viscosity	Ice cream, baking
LBG (locust bean)	Carob seed	Galactomannan (Man:Gal=4:1)	Need heat to dissolve; synergy with xanthan/κ-carr	Ice cream, dairy
Gum arabic	Acacia exudate	Branched + polypeptide	Low viscosity, water-soluble, great emulsifier	Beverage flavor emulsion
Inulin	Chicory root	β-2,1 D-fructose	Prebiotic, low-calorie, fat replacer	Low-cal foods
Konjac glucomannan	Konjac tuber	β-1,4 Glc-Man	Massive water uptake (200×)	Low-cal noodles, jelly

⭐ Xanthan synergy

Xanthan + LBG form synergistic gel (neither alone).
LBG's "naked chain" inserts into xanthan double helix.

⭐ Xanthan T-independence

Viscosity nearly unchanged 0–100°C, no retrogradation, no crystallization. A rare single-do-it-all gum.

Topic 6b · Gelling Hydrocolloids

Four gel-forming food hydrocolloids

🌊 Carrageenan (κ, ι, λ)

From red seaweed; sulfated galactan
κ-carrageenan: hard/brittle gel with K⁺/Ca²⁺, thermoreversible
ι-carrageenan: soft/elastic gel with Ca²⁺, freeze-thaw stable
λ-carrageenan: no gel, only thickening
Use: ice cream, cheese, meat water-holding

🟢 Pectin

α-1,4 D-galacturonic acid (partially methyl-esterified)
HM pectin (DM > 50%): gels with sugar + acid (pH 3)
LM pectin (DM < 50%): gels with Ca²⁺ (low-sugar jams)
Source: citrus peel, apple pomace

🟫 Alginate

β-D-mannuronic + α-L-guluronic acid (block copolymer)
+ Ca²⁺ → "egg-box" gel (G blocks chelate Ca²⁺)
No heat needed, cold gel
Used: artificial fish roe, 3D-printed food, drug encapsulation
Precipitates at low pH (<3, COOH protonated)

🍮 Agar

From red seaweed, agarose + agaropectin
Thermoreversible: gel @ 35°C, melt @ 85°C (hysteresis)
Low concentration (0.5%) → firm gel
Used: jellies, microbial agar, traditional confections

💡 Four gelation mechanisms: ① Cool → double helix (agar, κ-carr) ② Ca²⁺ bridge (alginate, LM pectin) ③ Sugar + acid dehydration (HM pectin) ④ Heat (MC/HPMC, xanthan-LBG).

Topic 7 · Dietary Fiber + Prebiotics

"Indigestible" carbs are important

📏 Dietary fiber definition

Carbohydrates not hydrolyzed by human digestive enzymes
Two categories:

Type	Examples	Effects
Insoluble	Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin	Bulks stool, accelerates transit
Soluble	β-glucan, pectin, guar, inulin	Lowers cholesterol & blood sugar

Recommended intake

Female 25 g/day, Male 38 g/day
Actual usually < 15 g/day (refined Asian diet)

🦠 Prebiotics

Indigestible carbs that selectively promote beneficial gut microbes
Main prebiotics:
→ Inulin (chicory, onion, banana)
→ FOS (fructo-oligosaccharides)
→ GOS (galacto-oligosaccharides, dairy)
→ Resistant starch (cooled rice/potato)
Colon fermentation → SCFAs (acetate, propionate, butyrate)
Butyrate is the main energy source for colonocytes

⭐ Prebiotic ≠ Probiotic: prebiotic is "food", probiotic is "microbe". Combined = synbiotic.

Chapter Wrap-up · 360 minutes covered

From monosaccharide stereochemistry,
to the fate of a loaf of bread

What you learned

• D/L, α/β, mutarotation
• Maillard 3 stages, 5 variables
• 4 caramel classes, acrylamide safety
• Sucrose invert, cyclodextrin encapsulation
• Amylose vs amylopectin
• Gelatinization → retrogradation
• Xanthan, pectin, carrageenan

Apply it

• Baking: sugar, starch, modification, Maillard
• Beverages: thickening, emulsification, sweetness
• Dairy: carrageenan, LBG, xanthan
• Candy: crystallization control, invert sugar
• Low-cal: fiber, alditols, prebiotics
• Safety: acrylamide control

Next chapters

• Ch.2 Water & Ice (gelatinization plasticization)
• Ch.4 Lipids (amylose-lipid complex)
• Ch.5 Proteins (Maillard's Lys)
• Ch.7 Enzymes (amylase, lactase)

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